Topic
Provide a user-friendly, downloadable one-page handout summarising recommended steps or strategies for effective interpersonal communication. This handout should target Australian adults and be designed, for example, for distribution to patients in doctor's waiting rooms. Also provide more detailed commentary and background to the handout in your blog post.
Abstract
This paper provides additional supporting information to the summarised one-page downloadable handout on ‘strategies for effective interpersonal communication’ in (Appendix A). The major social psychological theories discussed include the Theory of Mind, Transactional Analysis and the Social Perception Theory. These theories will be used to examine the literature on interpersonal communication. In particular, discussions will focus on a number of models including Shannon’s (1948) Transmissive model of the communication process and the Interactive and Transactive models of communication. In addition, figures relating to the communication models will be used to connect and link the various theoretical concepts.
For centuries humans have been communicating, conveying a message which is sent to the receiver ‘the other person’ to interpret. This process is defined as interpersonal communication, the transmission of information from one person to another (Grivas, 2004). Catt, Miller and Schallenkamp (2007), believe that a sharing of meaning must exist between the sender and the receiver for effective interpersonal communication to occur. Therefore, aside from the intellectual processes involved in the act of communicating cognition, emotion and physical aspects are considered to be just as important (Ralph, 2006). Of the many theoretical perspectives on interpersonal communication the first discussed is the theory of mind which posits that for successful communication to occur, understanding that perspectives can differ is also essential. A communicator has an intention to take a certain perspective on an object but not necessarily the same perspective as the listener (Miller, 2006). Second, the Transactional Analysis theory suggests that through one’s lifespan the experiences from childhood, youth and adulthood may potentially shape how an individual communicates (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Third, Social Perception Theory suggests that people observe their own behaviour to infer what they are thinking and how they are feeling (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Finally, Shannons (1948) transmission model of the communication process and the Interactive and Transactive models will be analysed to determine the simplest and clearest model for helping people to understand and learn the basics of effective communication. Supporting research addressing the various theories and strategies proposed in the downloadable document will also be explored.
According to Dunphy (2004) the process of communication or the exchange of information between the sender and receiver is fraught with pitfalls, difficulties, and potential misunderstandings. Moreover, it begins with the generation of an idea or intention which must be encoded or translated into a form that can be transmitted across a channel. A channel provides a path through which a message travels and a channel can be any medium such as for example the internet, radio, television, films, newspapers and magazines (Cherrington cited in Dunphy, 2004). The path of communication whilst fraught with potential difficulties must also be viewed with the aim of recognising non verbal behaviour, nuances and subtle differences in the relationship of interaction in communication. Ralph (1998) supports this notion suggesting the individual’s responses and interactions are determined not only by what is communicated, but how it is interpreted by the receiver. Baumeister and Bushman (2008) found that important and powerful forces originate in the interactions and relationships between people and what goes on inside the individual adapts to those interpersonal processes. To illustrate further, the theory of mind refers to an understanding of mental states such as belief, desire and knowledge that enables us to explain and predict others’ behaviours (Miller, 2006). This theory is closely coupled with the development of communication and language to the point that one often does not recognise their interdependence (Miller, 2006). More specifically, the theory of mind can be viewed as implicit attitudes, an unconscious processing of thoughts and feelings somewhat different to transactional analysis where the theory seeks to understand from which ego state a behaviour is coming.
Sills (2007) posits the theory that most of the major concepts of Transactional Analysis (TA) acknowledge the 'two-way street' of human relations. This theory explores the ego states to ascertain if the parent, adult or child behaviour is being displayed see (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Transactional Analysis
Moreover, TA holds that people can change if they gain insight into their thinking processes as thinking influences feeling and behaviour (Gladding, 2005). Hence, this insight into the ego states permits the individual to reflect on their behaviour and as a result, cognitive dissonance may provide some reflection as to the psychological discomfort the individual may feel. Furthermore, within TA, a model of communication and relationships is called “I'm OK, you're OK" see (Appendix D) which operates from each of the four positions at various times. This theory suggests that well functioning individuals learn to recognise unhealthy positions and modify their thoughts and behaviours accordingly (Gladding, 2005). One interesting finding within TA suggests that the unconscious is not important (Gladding, 2005) however posits the belief that individuals can gain insight into behaviour. Consequently, the Theory of Mind also finds insight necessary to utilise implicit attitudes in juxtaposition with explicit attitudes to gather information.
This finding complements the Social Perception Theory that people observe their own behaviour to infer what they are thinking and how they are feeling (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). For introspection to occur, conscious processing requires the observation of behaviour and drawing conclusions. Hence this simplistic approach is factored into the downloadable document. These strategies attempt to simplify the necessary skills for effective interpersonal communication drawing on the theoretical foundations of the perspectives discussed in this paper. More particularly, recognising that no two individuals are the same, the wording used is minimalistic to capture ones attention and salient enough to retain one’s attention, whether one yields the message remains to be seen. One theory where receptivity was surpassed is that of Shannon’s 1948 Transmission model which was initially designed for the Bell Company as an engineering communication theory. Part of the success of Shannon’s (1948) model of communication still widely used in education today is due to its structuralist reduction of communication to a set of basic constituents that not only explain how communication happens, but why communication sometimes fails (Foulger, 2004) see Figure 2.
Figure 2: Shannon’s (1948) model of the communication process.
Figure 3: Interactive model of the communication process (with feedback loop).
The bi-directionality of communication is adapted to Shannon’s Transmissive model see Figure 3 with the concept of the feedback loop. One of two variants to the Transmissive model, the Interactive model elaborates that destinations provide feedback on the messages they receive so the information sources can adapt their messages, in real time (Foulger, 2004). One modification to this model is the noise source located near the feedback loop. The noise source was initially intended for telecommunication interference for example static or disruption. However, due to modern technology noise is now screened out. Whilst this functionality may appear redundant, a solution to this was error detection and correction used more as a metaphor for problems associated with effective listening (Foulger, 2004). Hence, Foulger found that people really do adapt their messages based on the feedback they receive so meaning may alter the communication as stated earlier by Catt et al. (2007). However, Chandler (1995) suggests that the transmission model lacks meaning, and underestimates the creativity of the act of interpretation. Whilst the feedback loop added later by theorists enables speakers to adjust their performance to the needs and responses of their audience, Chandler believes that transmission models of communication reduce human communication put simply through the transmission of messages (1995). This approach suggests that in Shannon’s model no allowance is made for the relationships between people, as communicators believe that we frame what is said differently according to the roles in which we communicate (Chandler, 1995). Whilst TA supports the notion of different roles, the other variant to Shannon’s Transmission model is the Transactive model. This model incorporates the very meaning that was lacking as Chandler stated in the previous models see Figure 4.
Figure 4: Transactive Model of the communication process.
Chandler (1995) describes alternatives to the Transmissive models of communication as constructivist stating that such perspectives acknowledge that meanings are actively constructed by both initiators and interpreters rather than simply 'transmitted'. Foulger (2004) supports this belief stating that this model attempts to capture the fundamental interaction of language, medium, and message. These factors enable communication, the socially constructed aspects of each element, and the relationship of creators and consumers of messages both to these elements and to each other. Folger (2004) found that interpersonal communication typically includes the social construction of the self, perception of self and other, language, nonverbal communication, listening, conflict management, intercultural communication, relational communication, and various communication contexts, including work and family. Baumeister and Bushman (2008) support this view suggesting that humans engage in interpersonal communication because they need to express and receive interpersonal needs. This normative influence suggests that humans need to belong to and connect with others. Hence the need to ensure communication skills remain effective is to continually develop the interplay between interpersonal communication and interpretation.
In conclusion, the art of skillfully communicating with another individual requires active listening, an awareness of body language, nuances and skills. Whilst all three theoretical perspectives of the Theory of Mind, Transactional Analysis and Social Perception Theory recognise the need for meaning and interpretation of human feelings and behaviours only one model of communication factored this in. Whilst Shannon’s Transmissive and Interactive models appear basic in design and are easy to understand, Chandler’s views on interpretation and meaning are supported by the Transactive model which incorporates these two variables. As Chandler (1995) puts it the model provides a ‘constructivist approach’ where meanings are actively constructed by initiators and interpreters rather than simply 'transmitted' incorporating a more holistic approach. Overall no two individuals are the same, and interpretation is individualistic. However, the social psychological strategies aimed at effective interpersonal communication as detailed in the downloadable document are adaptable and easily identifiable. Learning to be cognisant of these factors may assist an individual in achieving effective interpersonal communication.
References
Baumeister, R.F. & Bushman, B.J. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. (pp. 83) United States: Thomson Wadsworth.
Catt, S., Miller, D. & Schallenkamp, K. (2007). You are the key: Communicate for learning effectiveness. Education 127(3), 369-377.
Chandler, D. (1995). The Transmission Model of Communication. Retrieved 26 October 2007 from http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/trans.html
Bellafiore, D.R. (2007). (2) DRB Alternatives Inc. Interpersonal Conflict and Effective Communication. “Integrating your inner hopes and realities”. Retrieved 26 October 2007 from http://www.drbalternatives.com/articles/cc2.html
Dunphy, S (2004). Using Hollywood one-liners to illustrate the communication process: An interactive approach. Behaviour & Information Technology. 23(6), 423-426.
Foulger, D. (2004). Models of the Communication Process. Retrieved 26 October 2007 from http://foulger.info/davis/research/unifiedModelOfCommunication.htm
Gladding, S.T. (2005). Counseling Theories, Essential Concepts and Applications (pp. 164). Pearson, Merrill Prentice Hall.
Grivas, J. (2004). Oxford Psychology Study Dictionary (2nd ed.). (pp. 76). Victoria, Australia:Oxford University Press.
Medina, M.S. (2006). Teacher’s topics: Teaching self-concept and self-esteem in a clinical communications course. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 70(5), 1-7.
Miller, C.A. (2006). Developmental relationships between language and theory of mind. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 15, 142-154.
Ralph, E.G. (1998). Insights on effective communication: some “sabbatical” observations. Education. 118(4), 20-28.
Sills, C. (2007). Transactional Analysis; A relational psychotherapy. Therapy Today. 18(1), 15-17.
Self Assessment
Online engagement
1 Set up a blog account (04/09/07 chose topic )
2 Submit blog feed (Not required for blog 2)
3 Create a test blog posts (Not required for blog 2)
4 Publish blogs for comment (9 postings on my site + 1 discussion posting)
5 Comment on other blogs (20+ made consistently over weeks 8-15).
6 Use discussion list. Yes
I fulfilled the online engagement requirements by successfully completing all the requirements necessary for Blog 2.
I was one of the first few to select my Blog 2 topic on the day the topics were released 4/9/07. On the 5/9/07 I made my first posting and have continued to do postings on a regular basis throughout the second half of the semester hence a higher level of online engagement with others throughout Blog 2.
With my discussion posting I encouraged people to participate in a quiz (21/09/07). This assisted me with my research preparation.
I have posted four ‘You Tube’ clips on communication. In my self assessment for Blog 1 I stated that I would do more postings in Blog 2 and I have achieved that with posting over 20 comments to other blogs. I researched information early as I said I would in my self assessment for Blog 1.
I have 3 stars which indicates very active online engagement, regular blog and/or discussion activities, with a clear evolution of thinking during week 8-15.
Theory
There is a plethora of information on communication. Knowing where to start was difficult at first however, I focused primarily on 3 theories and 3 communication models namely the Theory of Mind, Transactional Analysis and Self Perception Theory. Along with Shannon’s Transmissive model of communication including the Interactive and Transactional models of communication. I could have written a great deal more however, tried to capture the salient points from the theoretical perspectives and the process of the communication models. Analysis of the theories was presented to provide a holistic perspective on interpersonal communication using the models to contrast any differences. I do hope that I have adequately addressed the key elements of the research as I mentioned above there is so much literature and so many theories.
Research
I believe I captured the relevant key theories in my research on interpersonal communication. I placed the figures into the body of the essay to provide a visual for the reader to follow the communication models. This was done to enhance the process of understanding what progression had been made with the various models however, efforts were made to ensure the figures did not disrupt the flow of the essay. When compiling the handout summary I envisaged what I would want to see handout located in a doctor’s surgery. I therefore researched a number of interpersonal communication journal articles and websites and included my own thoughts to present this document.
Written
I used APA style throughout the essay with the exception of transferring the information to my blog and losing formatting for example indentations and double spacing and italics. I had a Flesch Reading Ease of 13.6 and a Flesch Kincaid level of 17.4. I did revise my essay to achieve a Flesch Kincaid level of 12 however, inadvertently increased this figure and decreased the Flesch Reading Ease. When contrasting theories and putting forth an argument I found it extremely difficult this time around to reduce the level any further. When I omitted the references this reduced the Flesch Kincaid level to 14.9.
Online Engagement
I believe I have used highly effective online engagement from week 8 through to week 15. I received 3 stars to indicate a clear evolution of thinking in week 8 to week 15. I posted four ‘You Tube’ clips on communication. For Blog 1 in my self assessment I stated I would do more postings in Blog 2 and I have achieved that with posting over 20+ comments to other blogs. Some were more in-depth than others however, the task was to actively engage online with other students and this is what I set out to do. I researched information early as I said I would in my self assessment for Blog 1. I fleshed out theories and various models of communication to prepare for my research. With my discussion posting on 21 September 2007, I encouraged students to participate in a quiz on effective communication and listening skills. This assisted me with my research preparation and the response to this was greatly appreciated. I also provided useful tips and responses to other students postings and enjoyed the online engagement more so this time around as I felt more comfortable with the knowledge I had acquired from undertaking Blog 1. I also enjoyed receiving feedback, guidance and suggestions from everyone.
